The Impact of Colonialism on Mental Health in Ireland: Addressing Systemic Trauma in Therapy

"The major battles of the world are fought in the human soul."

                                                                                                                   – James Connolly

                                                                                              Introduction

Colonisation is a pervasive violent structure that continues to shape identities, relationships, and emotional landscapes of those it has touched long after the physical presence of colonial powers has faded (Fanon, 1961). Dealing with colonisation as a closed chapter of history on a dusty shelf is to ignore the living breathing legacy it leaves behind. In Ireland, colonisation left deep psychological scars engraved in the collective psyche, playing a role in shaping the way individuals navigate their emotions and experiencing and expressing distress. Moreover, the role of colonisation expanded to shape the way individuals navigate authority, community and healing.

Recognising that mental health struggles do not exist in isolation is acknowledged by mental health professionals regardless of their approach to mental health. The enduring effects of British colonial rule, the Great Famine, religious theocracy, and ongoing systemic oppression under capitalism and patriarchy continue to shape Irish society. Therefore, if psychotherapy is politically neutral, it ignores that so much suffering lie within these systemic structures.

A decolonised approach to psychotherapy in Ireland demands that we:

- Acknowledge the intergenerational impact of trauma and oppression.

- Identify how systemic structures continue to shape mental health.

- Centre cultural and historical context within the therapeutic space.

- Support clients in reclaiming lost aspects of identity, culture, and self-worth.

This article explores the psychological and systemic impact of colonisation in Ireland, examining its historical roots, its enduring effects on mental health, and the responsibility of therapists to recognise and address these forces within the therapy room.

Historical Context: The Long Shadow of British Rule

Cultural Suppression and the Loss of Irish Identity

The British colonisation of Ireland was a systematic effort to erase Irish culture and identity. The Penal Laws (1695–1829) criminalised Irish Catholic identity, stripping Irish people of their rights to land ownership, education, and political participation (Connolly, 2008). Language suppression was a cornerstone of this colonial strategy. The decline of the Irish language, once spoken by the majority of the population, was accelerated by British policies that penalised Irish speakers and enforced English as the dominant language (Ó Tuathaigh, 1990).

This forced cultural displacement inflicted deep psychological wounds. Language is not just a tool for communication; it is a vessel for memory, emotion, and identity (Fishman, 1991). The systemic erosion of Gaeilge severed many Irish people from their ancestral wisdom, folklore, and spiritual traditions, fostering a profound sense of disconnection from cultural roots. Today, the revival of the Irish language has emerged as a form of decolonial healing, with movements to reclaim Gaeilge as an act of resistance (Ó Laoire, 2017).

The Great Famine: Scarcity, Survival, and Intergenerational Trauma

The Great Famine (1845–1852) was not a natural disaster but a colonial atrocity, exacerbated by British economic policies that prioritised profit over human life. Over one million people perished, and another one million emigrated, leaving the nation profoundly traumatised (Kinealy, 1994).

Psychologically, the famine left a legacy of survival anxiety, food insecurity, and scarcity mindsets that persist in Irish culture today (Yehuda & Lehrner, 2018). These inherited traumas often manifest in behaviours such as:

- Overworking and guilt around rest ("Keep the head down and keep going.")

- Food anxiety or hoarding behaviours ("Eat everything on your plate, there are starving children in the world.")

- A persistent sense of existential insecurity, even in times of stability.

Research on intergenerational trauma has shown that traumatic events can alter stress regulation, emotional patterns, and even gene expression, passing trauma responses down to future generations (Yehuda et al., 2016). While Irish clients today may not consciously link their distress to the famine, these psychological patterns are rooted in collective memory.

Religious Theocracy and Shame-Based Identity Formation

Following independence in 1922, British rule was replaced by another form of oppression: Catholic theocracy. The Church wielded significant control over education, healthcare, and social policy, shaping Irish identity through a moral framework that emphasised obedience, self-sacrifice, and shame (Garland, 2016).

The Magdalene Laundries, Mother and Baby Homes, and industrial schools institutionalised this culture of shame, particularly around female sexuality, bodily autonomy, and nonconformity (O’Donnell, 2018). Survivors of these institutions, many of whom endured physical and emotional abuse, have spoken about how the psychological effects of shame and silence continue to affect their self-worth and relationships.

In the therapy room, this history can manifest in clients as:

- Guilt around pleasure, self-care, or bodily autonomy.

- Fear of judgment and extreme sensitivity to criticism.

- Reluctance to discuss sex, relationships, or trauma openly.

- Deep-rooted patterns of self-sacrifice and martyrdom.

Therapists should create a safe space where clients can explore, and challenge shame-based narratives instilled by religious theocracy and colonial oppression. This involves helping clients reframe self-sacrifice, guilt, and silence as survival strategies rather than personal failings.

• Concrete Steps:

  1. Identify Shame Triggers: Work with clients to identify situations or beliefs that trigger shame, such as feelings of unworthiness or fear of judgment.

  2. Reframe Survival Strategies: Help clients understand that behaviours like self-sacrifice or silence were once necessary for survival but may no longer serve them. For example, “It makes sense that you learned to put others first—it might have kept you safe in the past. But what would it feel like to prioritise yourself now?”

  3. Encourage Emotional Expression: Use creative therapies like art, writing, or role-playing to help clients express emotions they may have been taught to suppress.

  4. Challenge Religious Guilt: For clients affected by religious trauma, explore how teachings around guilt and sin may have shaped their self-perception. Offer alternative narratives that emphasise self-compassion and autonomy.

Systemic Oppression and Its Impact on Mental Health

Capitalism and the Pressure to Perform

Ireland today is deeply entrenched in neoliberal capitalism, a system that equates human worth with productivity. The Celtic Tiger era (1995–2007) reinforced this mindset, promoting narratives of economic success as moral virtue while dismantling social safety nets (Kirby, 2010).

This system manifests in mental health struggles such as:

- Workaholism and burnout.

- Guilt around rest and leisure.

- Viewing success as the only marker of self-worth.

Therapists should help clients disentangle their self-worth from productivity and success, which are often reinforced by neoliberal capitalism. This involves exploring alternative values and creating space for rest and self-care.

• Concrete Steps:

  1. Explore Values Beyond Productivity: Ask clients, “What would you value about yourself if you weren’t working or achieving?” This can help uncover intrinsic worth beyond societal expectations.

  2. Normalise Rest: Challenge the guilt associated with rest by framing it as a radical act of self-care. For example, “Rest is not laziness, it’s a way to honour your body and mind.”

  3. Set Boundaries: Support clients in setting boundaries around work and social obligations. Role-play scenarios where they practice saying no or asking for help.

  4. Celebrate Non-Productive Activities: Encourage clients to engage in activities that bring joy or relaxation without a goal, such as walking in nature, listening to music, or spending time with loved ones. Furthermore, encourage them to enjoy the process when they are practicing their hobbies rather than focusing on the end result.

White Supremacy and Racial Trauma in Ireland

Though Ireland is often perceived as racially homogenous, systemic racism persists. The Direct Provision system, which confines asylum seekers to inhumane living conditions, reflects Ireland’s complicity in racialised oppression (Lentin, 2012). Black, Brown and ethnic minority clients frequently experience:

- Microaggressions and systemic discrimination.

- Barriers to accessing mental healthcare.

- Feelings of alienation within Irish society.

Therapists must critically examine their own biases and the limitations of Eurocentric therapeutic models. This involves creating an inclusive space for clients from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, particularly those affected by Ireland’s Direct Provision system.

• Concrete Steps:

  1. Practice Cultural Humility: Approach your work with a commitment to self-reflection, openness, and a willingness to learn from the lived experiences of others. Recognise that you will never fully understand the complexities of another person’s culture or identity and remain humble in your efforts to support them. Cultural humility involves acknowledging power imbalances, being open to feedback, and continuously striving to improve your understanding and practice.

  2. Educate Yourself on Systemic Racism: Attend training on anti-racism and read literature by Black and ethnic minority authors to understand the lived experiences of marginalised communities. Approach this learning with humility, recognising that systemic racism is deeply ingrained and requires ongoing engagement.

  3. Acknowledge Privilege: Reflect on your own positionality and how it may influence the therapeutic relationship. Be transparent about your commitment to anti-racism and remain open to conversations about power and privilege.

  4. Validate Racial Trauma: For clients experiencing racism, validate their experiences and explore the emotional impact. For example, “It sounds like that experience was really painful. How has it affected how you see yourself or your place in Ireland?” Approach these conversations with empathy and a willingness to listen without judgment.

  5. Advocate for Systemic Change: Support clients in navigating systemic barriers, such as accessing mental health services or advocating for their rights within the Direct Provision system. Go even further and advocate for the dismantle of the Direct Provision system. Use your position to amplify the voices of marginalised communities and work collaboratively toward systemic change.

Cultural Healing Resources in Ireland

Despite the wounds of colonisation, Ireland possesses deep cultural reservoirs of healing that therapists can incorporate into practice.

Connection to the Sea

The Irish relationship with the sea has long been one of spiritual renewal and emotional release (Ó hÓgáin, 2006). Many people find healing through cold-water sea swimming, which has become a popular communal mental health practice.

Music, Storytelling, and Community Healing

Traditional Irish music and Seanchaí storytelling have historically served as mechanisms for processing grief, resilience, and resistance (Vallely, 2011). Therapists can encourage clients to engage with music, poetry, and narrative work as part of their healing process.

*The Seanchaí were storytellers and historians in Gaelic culture, particularly in Ireland and Scotland. They played a vital role in preserving folklore, myths, legends, and historical events through spoken word (Ó Súilleabháin 1942).

Reclaiming Gaeilge

For many, reconnecting with the Irish language offers a profound sense of belonging and identity reclamation (Ó Laoire, 2017). Therapy can incorporate language exploration as a tool for self-discovery and empowerment.

Therapists should explore ways to integrate Ireland’s rich cultural heritage into the therapeutic process, helping clients reconnect with their roots and find meaning in traditional practices.

• Concrete Steps that could be taken by therapists:

  1. Explore Cultural Interests: explore with clients if they have an interest in reconnecting with Irish culture, such as learning the language, exploring traditional music, or engaging with folklore.

  2. Use Creative Therapies: Incorporate music, poetry, or storytelling into sessions if you have the knowledge and skills to use these approaches. If you are not trained to use these approaches, you might be able to invite clients to share a song or story that resonates with them and explore its emotional significance.

  3. Encourage Community Engagement: Suggest joining cultural groups or events, such as Irish language classes, Irish speaking groups or traditional music sessions, to foster a sense of belonging.

  4. Highlight Resilience: Frame cultural practices as acts of resistance and resilience with clients who are searching for belonging. For example, “Reclaiming your language is a powerful way to honour your ancestors and resist the erasure of your culture.”

Patriarchy and Gender-Based Oppression: A Feminist Intersectional and Social Justice Approach to Decolonising Psychotherapy

Patriarchy, as a system of power, has deeply entrenched itself in Irish society, shaping cultural norms, institutions, and individual psyches. From the historical silencing of women through church control to contemporary struggles for reproductive rights and gender equality, gender-based oppression continues to shape mental health in profound ways (Smith, 2004). A decolonised feminist therapy approach, informed by intersectionality and social justice principles, seeks to dismantle these oppressive structures and empower individuals to reclaim their autonomy, voice, and self-worth.

Understanding Patriarchy and Gender-Based Oppression in Ireland

Historical Context: Church Control and Silencing of Women

The Catholic Church’s dominance in post-colonial Ireland played a significant role in enforcing patriarchal norms. Through its control over education, healthcare, and social policy, the Church propagated a rigid moral framework that emphasised female purity, obedience, and self-sacrifice (Garland, 2016). Institutions like the Magdalene Laundries and Mother and Baby Homes institutionalised the policing of women’s bodies and sexuality, leaving a legacy of shame, silence, and trauma (O’Donnell, 2018).

Impact on Mental Health:

- Internalised Misogyny: Many women internalised the Church’s teachings, leading to feelings of guilt, unworthiness, and self-doubt. Some women would judge other women who try to break the chains of patriarchy by viewing them as evil or immoral.

- Generational Silence: Trauma experienced by previous generations, such as forced adoptions or institutional abuse, was often shrouded in silence, creating a culture of secrecy and shame.

- Bodily Autonomy: The Church’s control over reproductive rights left many women feeling disempowered and disconnected from their bodies.

Modern Struggles: Reproductive Rights and Gender Equality

While Ireland has made significant strides in recent years, such as the repeal of the Eighth Amendment in 2018, gender-based oppression persists. Women and gender-diverse individuals continue to face systemic barriers, including:

- Gender Pay Gaps: Economic inequality reinforces dependence and limits opportunities for financial independence.

- Sexual Violence: High rates of gender-based violence are rooted in systemic power imbalances that punish women for sexual autonomy while excusing men’s actions.

- Barriers to Leadership: Underrepresentation in politics and corporate leadership perpetuates patriarchal power structures.

Sexual Violence: A Systemic Issue Rooted in Patriarchy and Power Imbalances

Sexual violence is not merely an individual act of harm, but a systemic issue rooted in patriarchal power structures. Historically, women in Ireland were punished for sexual autonomy, while men faced little to no consequences for their actions (Smith, 2004). This double standard reflects a broader cultural narrative that policed women’s body while perpetuating male entitlement.

Historical Context: Punishing Women, Excusing Men

- Magdalene Laundries: Women who were perceived as "sexually deviant" (e.g., unmarried mothers, survivors of sexual violence) were incarcerated in Magdalene Laundries, where they were forced into unpaid labour and subjected to abuse (O’Donnell, 2018). These institutions served as tools of social control, reinforcing the idea that women’s sexuality was dangerous and needed to be regulated.

- Mother and Baby Homes: Unmarried mothers were often shamed and separated from their children, while the fathers faced no accountability (Garland, 2016). This systemic punishment of women for sexual activity perpetuated a culture of shame and silence around sexuality.

- Legal and Religious Frameworks: Laws and religious doctrines historically criminalised women’s sexual autonomy, such as the criminalisation of abortion and contraception, while excusing or minimising men’s roles in sexual violence (Fischer, 2016).

Modern Manifestations: Systemic Power Imbalances

Today, sexual violence remains a pervasive issue, with high rates of gender-based violence in Ireland. This is not solely due to individual acts of harm but is deeply tied to systemic power imbalances that continue to privilege male entitlement while punishing women for asserting their autonomy. For example, in a 2022 Limerick case, Cathal Crotty who violently assaulted Natasha O’Brien received a suspended sentence, highlighting legal failures and victim-blaming attitudes. Such cases underscore how systemic biases protect perpetrators and fail survivors, perpetuating cycles of gender-based violence.

- Victim Blaming: Survivors of sexual violence are often blamed or disbelieved, reinforcing the idea that women are responsible for men’s actions (Smith, 2004).

- Legal and Institutional Failures: Barriers to justice, such as low conviction rates for sexual offences, reflect systemic biases that protect perpetrators (Fischer, 2016).

- Cultural Narratives: Media and cultural narratives often perpetuate harmful stereotypes, such as the idea that women’s clothing or behaviour "invites" violence (O’Donnell, 2018).

A Feminist Intersectional Approach to Decolonising Psychotherapy

Feminist intersectionality, a framework developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989), recognises that oppression is not experienced in isolation but is shaped by the intersection of multiple identities, such as gender, race, class, and ability. In the context of Ireland, this means acknowledging how colonialism, Catholicism, and capitalism intersect to perpetuate gender-based oppression.

Key Principles of a Decolonised Feminist Therapy Approach

1. Centring Marginalised Voices: Prioritise the experiences and perspectives of women, LGBTQ+ individuals, and other marginalised groups.

2. Challenging Power Structures: Critically examine how systemic oppression shapes mental health and well-being.

3. Empowering Autonomy: Support clients in reclaiming their agency and challenging internalised oppression.

4. Incorporating Cultural Context: Recognise how historical and cultural factors, such as Ireland’s colonial and religious history, influence gender-based trauma.

Concrete Strategies for Therapists

1. Addressing Internalised Misogyny and Self-Worth

Internalised misogyny, the unconscious adoption of patriarchal beliefs, can manifest as low self-esteem, self-doubt, and a tendency to prioritise others’ needs over one’s own.

Concrete Steps:

- Identify Internalised Beliefs: Help clients recognise and challenge beliefs such as “I’m only valuable if I’m caring for others” or “I don’t deserve to take up space.”

- Reframe Self-Worth: Encourage clients to define their worth beyond societal expectations, such as productivity or appearance. For example, “What would it mean to value yourself for who you are, not what you do?”

- Celebrate Strengths: Highlight the client’s resilience, creativity, and unique qualities as acts of resistance against patriarchal norms.

2. Breaking Generational Silence Around Gendered Trauma

The silence surrounding gendered trauma, such as institutional abuse, domestic violence, or reproductive coercion, can perpetuate cycles of shame and disempowerment.

Concrete Steps:

- Create a Safe Space: Foster an environment where clients feel safe to share their stories without fear of judgment.

- Validate Experiences: Acknowledge the pain and injustice of their experiences. For example, “What happened to you was not your fault, and it’s okay to feel angry or hurt.”

- Facilitate Storytelling: Use narrative therapy techniques to help clients reclaim their stories and reframe them as acts of survival and resistance.

3. Supporting Assertiveness and Emotional Expression

Patriarchal norms often discourage women and gender-diverse individuals from expressing anger, setting boundaries, or asserting their needs.

Concrete Steps:

- Normalise Anger: Reframe anger as a valid and empowering emotion. For example, “Anger can be a signal that something is wrong and needs to change.”. It is healthy to feel angry in the face of injustice.

- Practice Assertiveness: Use role-playing exercises to help clients practice setting boundaries and expressing their needs.

- Challenge Guilt: Explore the guilt associated with prioritising oneself and reframe self-care as a radical act of resistance.

4. Incorporating Intersectionality

Gender-based oppression does not exist in isolation but intersects with other forms of oppression, such as racism, classism, and ableism.

Concrete Steps:

- Explore Multiple Identities: Ask clients how their gender intersects with other aspects of their identity, such as race, class, or disability. For example, “How do you think being a woman of colour in Ireland has shaped your experiences?”

- Address Systemic Barriers: Help clients navigate systemic challenges, such as discrimination in the workplace or barriers to accessing healthcare.

- Advocate for Equity: Support clients in advocating for systemic change, such as participating in activism or joining advocacy groups.

Liberation-Focused Practices

Liberation psychology, developed by Ignacio Martín-Baró (1994), emphasises the importance of addressing systemic oppression in mental health care. When applied to gender-based oppression, liberation-focused practices can help individuals reclaim their autonomy and challenge patriarchal systems.

1. Collective Healing and Community Building

Therapy can facilitate connections with others who share similar experiences, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual support.

Concrete Steps:

- Encourage clients to join feminist or LGBTQ+ support groups.

- Facilitate group therapy sessions focused on shared experiences of gender-based oppression.

- Explore the client’s relationship with their community and how it has been shaped by systemic barriers.

2. Advocacy and Empowerment

Therapists can empower clients to advocate for their rights and challenge systemic oppression.

Concrete Steps:

- Help clients develop self-advocacy skills, such as assertiveness and communicating their needs to employers or educators.

- Support clients in accessing resources, such as legal aid or reproductive healthcare.

- Encourage clients to participate in activism or advocacy efforts led by marginalised communities.

3. Reframing Resistance

In a patriarchal society, acts of self-expression, boundary-setting, and self-care can be framed as acts of resistance.

Concrete Steps:

- Explore how the client’s actions challenge patriarchal norms. For example, “How does setting boundaries at work disrupt the expectation that women should always be accommodating?”

- Celebrate the client’s resilience and resistance as sources of strength and empowerment.

Conclusion: Healing as a Collective and Political Act

The impact of colonialism on mental health in Ireland is not confined to history; it is a living force that continues to shape the emotional, psychological, and cultural fabric of Irish society. From the cultural erasure of British rule to the intergenerational trauma of the Great Famine and the shame-based identity formation enforced by Catholic theocracy, the legacy of colonialism is deeply embedded in the Irish psyche. These historical wounds are compounded by modern systemic oppressions, such as neoliberal capitalism, racialised hierarchies, and patriarchal structures, which perpetuate cycles of distress and disempowerment. As mental health professionals, we must recognise that therapy cannot be apolitical when the roots of suffering lie in these broader systems. A decolonised approach demands that we centre cultural and historical context, empower clients to reclaim their autonomy, and challenge the systemic structures that perpetuate harm.

Healing, in this context, is both an individual and collective act. By incorporating Ireland’s cultural healing resources—such as music, storytelling, and the Irish language—we can help clients reconnect with their heritage and find strength in their identities. At the same time, we must advocate for systemic change, addressing the inequities that continue to marginalise and oppress. Therapy becomes a space not only for personal transformation but also for resistance and reclamation. In doing so, we contribute to the broader project of healing a nation, fostering resilience, and creating a society where all individuals, regardless of gender, race, class, or ability, can thrive.

"It was culture as class performance, literature fetishised for its ability to take educated people on false emotional journeys, so that they might afterwards feel superior to the uneducated people whose emotional journeys they liked to read about." - Sally Rooney’s (Normal People).

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